External motivators in the classroom

External Motivators in the Classroom

Should students be given awards for academic achievement? This is an issue that

has become prevalent in today's schools. What exactly is an academic award anyways?

An academic award refers to an attractive object given as a result of a behavior. Students

begin to receive awards for learning at a very young age. A child's mothers' or fathers'

approval when they say their first words will often result in verbal praise, which is a form

of an award. Awards are a common part of our everyday lives. We receive rewards for

effort in an assortment of ways; a wave returned from a stranger or flowers from a

significant other, but there is large debate concerning whether awards should be given for

learning.

So what are these differing views, and what are their implications? Educational

psychologist A. Kohn, in his work in the Psychological Bulletin describes the behaviorist

approach to awards as a technique for controlling people, "Do this and you will get that."

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Kohn believes rewards are ineffective because once the reward stops so too does the

behavior. It is argued that awards are used as a controlling technique; doing things to

children rather than working with them to constructively develop a positive attitude

(Kohn, 1993). By offering students incentives i.e. external awards, for doing tasks that

they already enjoy or are motivated to do, their willingness or motivation to perform that

task may actually decrease (Deci, Koestner, & Ryan, 1999). On the other hand,

educational psychologist P. Chance argues that when teachers reinforce at a high rate,

students' get more enjoyment from their learning. He believes that a performance

contingent reward, delivered unexpectedly, does not harm intrinsic motivation for tasks

(Chance, 1993). Chance actively supports the use of awards to control behavior and

support learning.

There are many different types of awards; tangible awards including task, non-

contingent (awards not requiring working on a task), engagement contingent (awards that

require working on a task), completion contingent (required to finish the task to get

award), performance contingent (awards requiring a determined level of quality) and

verbal awards (positive feedback) (Deci, Koestner and Ryan, 2001). Awards may have

two outcomes. One way awards can be perceived is that they give a feeling that you've

done the right thing, independently using your skills and hard work, and that improves

your intrinsic motivation. The other way some people may see awards is they are given to

gain control over the recipient, and this often results in reducing the recipient's intrinsic

motivation (Deci, Koestner and Ryan, 2001).

Awards can originate from within our consciousness or from external sources;

they might then be described as intrinsic or extrinsic awards. Intrinsic awards are awards

that come from within; pleasure, interest and satisfaction from learning in its own right

and this may lead to intrinsic motivation, a natural tendency to pursue challenges

generated from ones own sense of gratification for the learning process (Harlen &

Deakin-Crick, 2003). Intrinsically motivated learners are interested in, and satisfied by

what they learn. Their learning is self-motivated; they are 'motivated from within', they

are curious about knowledge and recognize their responsibility in their own learning.

They will seek out information and set their own learning goals understanding that what

they achieve depends on their own effort and they are likely to become lifelong learners

(Harlen & Deakin-Crick, 2003). For intrinsically motivated people the reward is in the

learning process itself, and any failure they see to be internal. Some propose that people's

natural needs for a feeling of competence and their self-determination are the base for

intrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation is clearly linked to high-quality learning and

adjustment so it is important to encourage intrinsic motivation to learn, as much as

possible.

Chance writes that intrinsically motivated students are less prone to the

detrimental effects of external awards than externally motivated learners may be. Intrinsic

awards are said to be a more reliable alternative to extrinsic awards, but they may be seen

as distant or even unattainable due to lack of ability (Chance, 1992). Although Chance

accepts that extrinsic awards can have a negative affect on motivation for students, he

also states that intrinsic awards are insufficient for effective learning and that "The

teacher must supplement intrinsic awards with extrinsic rewards" including verbal praise

and other forms of recognition for work.

Extrinsic awards come from other people. They can be smiles, verbal praise,

thumbs-up signs, hugs, pats on the back, or applause. Grades, gold stars, certificates,

prizes, and money are examples of tangible extrinsic awards. These are the types of

awards that appear to cause the most controversy from educators and psychologists, as

extrinsic awards could possibly encourage extrinsically motivated learners to engage in

learning only as a means to an end, with little interest or regard for content of knowledge.

Their incentive is found in the awards and they may suffer a decrease or cessation of

learning if awards are stopped (Kohn, 1993).Effort is put into learning the things that are

tested or praised to gain the awards rather than because the learning has value for

developing understanding (Kohn, 1996).

It may be that extrinsic rewards could very well motivate students' who have no

initial interest in a task or who are not academically motivated. Some researchers affirm

that awards won't undermine intrinsic motivation for performing tasks seen as dull or

boring but neither do they have a positive influence on intrinsic motivation for those tasks

because there would not be any intrinsic motivation for dull or boring tasks to begin with.

Therefore it could be debated that there can be no disadvantage in offering extrinsic

awards to dull and boring task, and if it encourages students' to learn what could be the

harm? Chance states that a decline in motivation resulting from awards is very high when

the awards are used as incentives, being offered in advance of task completion and when

they are given out with no regard to performance or when the performance standard is

seen by the recipient as being unachievable. Alternatively awards do not have a negative

effect if students' have a high success rate and in this instance may increase interest in an

activity (Chance, 1993). That is, extrinsic awards can have a positive or negative affect

depending on how they are implemented.

Kohn states that the awards do not lead to any negative effects on motivation and

may actually increase intrinsic motivation, although he does concur that expected

tangible rewards can lead to a decrease in motivation when they are given simply for

participating in an activity. Most people have experienced how volume, tone of voice,

facial expressions and even social atmosphere can affect the way we interpret the

meaning of comments directed to us, and these variables may result in verbal awards

being interpreted or misinterpreted, as manipulative resulting in a decrease in intrinsic

motivation. It is important that verbal, or any award, is delivered in such a way so as not

to be condescending or controlling but rather to be informational. Deci expresses the

opinion that awards which are delivered in a context that conveys competence will

benefit intrinsic motivation. For example, to say to a student, "Well done, that's exactly

what I hoped you would do" gives an impression of control which may lead to a decrease

in intrinsic motivation. The informational or positive way of delivering a verbal reward

might be "Well done. It's great to see how hard you tried and how well you studied and

understand the material" giving the student a boost of confidence which may result in an

increase in intrinsic motivation.

Verbal awards are arguably the most effective in encouraging students' feelings

of self efficacy (Cameron & Pierce, 1994) although they seem to have less impact on

younger children than adults. Verbal awards don't always increase intrinsic motivation,

as they too can sometimes be seen as controlling, not only because some people

voluntarily behave or do specific things to get verbal awards, but also some teachers'

may use them with the intention of inducing a behavior or activity (Cameron & Pierce,

1994). To be effective in encouraging an intrinsic attitude to learning, it is suggested that

verbal awards must be sincere, be aimed at attributes or performances that students' can

control, not refer or rely on peer comparison, and reflect realistic standards and

expectations. As with all awards, they should be delivered immediately after the target

behavior occurred for them to be effective.

Deci, Koestner and Ryan, (2001) suggest that rather than attempting to encourage

people to find tasks interesting by offering them awards for learning, it would be better to

develop their understanding of how the activity is important to them in their real lives to

instill intrinsic motivation. They suggest that behavioral based lessons are so "crushingly

boring" that it is necessary to provide extrinsic awards to keep students' motivated and

suggest that constructivist educators should aim to make tasks themselves intrinsically

interesting thus render unnecessary the need for external motivators or awards. Rewards

can't magically motivate people to find tasks interesting if in their hearts they perceive on

tasks they find them dull and boring (Deci, Koestner and Ryan, (2001).

Research shows that tangible awards do significantly undermine intrinsic

motivation whereas verbal awards given unexpectedly, with genuine reason and with

interpersonal skill, will increase intrinsic motivation if the classroom atmosphere is

supportive rather than controlling. The affect of awards is probably best summed up by

Harackiewicz, Manderlink and Sanaone (1984) when referring to cognitive evaluation

theory;" If performance is instrumental to reward attainment, individuals may perceive

their behavior as extrinsically determined, and subsequent intrinsic motivation can be

undermined (controlling process). If perceptions of competence are developed, however,

intrinsic motivation may be enhanced (informational process) (p.287).

The use of awards for learning may lead to encouraging shallow learning,

learning for the sake of achieving awards which might be acceptable in limited conditions

such as boring tasks. It is intrinsic awards however that lead to intrinsic motivation for

learning; this in turn leads to deep learning and self satisfaction in the learning process.

This is a much more difficult goal for a teacher to achieve but perhaps a more honorable

one. To achieve this, students' need to see the value of their learning for themselves and

this might be best accomplished through interesting, constructivist planned lessons using

authentic tasks. There are a wide variety of meanings put to the term award, and each

will have different motivational implications. Many teachers' have successfully used

external award programs for learning frequently. The act of awarding students' should be

a personal judgment based not only on the tasks performed and the type of award, but

also on the personality of the award recipient, the deliverer, as well as the environment

the award is given in. For an award to be intrinsically motivating it must be genuine,

unexpected and to be of real value to the recipient. It may be a matter of the right award,

in the right circumstances, to the right person.

Works Cited

Chance, P. (1993). Sticking up for rewards. Phi Delta Kappan, 74(10):787-790.

Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (1999). A meta-analytic reviewof experiments examining the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsicmotivation. Psychological Bulletin, 125, 627-668.

Deci, E,. Koestner, R. & Ryan,R. (2001). Extrinsic Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation in Education: Reconsidered Once Again. Review of Educational Research, Spring 2001, Vol. 71, No. 1, pp.1-27

Eisenberger, R., Pierce, W. D., & Cameron, J. (1999). Effects of reward on intrinsic motivation: Negative, neutral, and positive. Psychological Bulliten, 125, p. 677-691.

Harackiewicz, J,. Manderlink, G,. and Sansone, C.(1984). Rewarding Pinball Wizardry: Effects of Evaluation and Cue Value on Intrinsic Interest. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology Volume 47, Issue 2, 1984.

Harlen, W and Deakin-Crick, R,. (2003). Testing andMotivation for Learning, Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice,10:2, 169 - 207

Kohn, A. (1993). Punished by rewards: The trouble with gold stars, incentive plans, Aís, praise and other bribes. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.

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